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Dozo: Stone work
Like in many other countries, dozo (masonry or stonework) is an old craft that is still in practice throughout the country. The skills of Bhutanese masonry can be seen in fortresses, temples, monasteries, stupas and farmhouses. It required special skills to cut and polish stones into right shapes and sizes and was carried out under the strict supervision of the head carpenter, who also had the role of an architect. Stone masons use an axe like tool called dota. Stones of crude shapes and sizes are chiselled into right shapes according to the style of the structure. There are mainly five different types of stone shapes that the masons prepare for construction. They are jamdo- used as the foundation stones, zurdo (corner stone) used as the corners walls, tshigdo (flat stones) that are used in the middle, dotru (pebbles) used in between the two chiseled stones and dochal (flat stones) layed in the courtyards of the dzong and temples. A skilled mason would first lay the zurdo (corner stone) and position other stones towards its right and left. The masons used a measuring thread called thig to correctly align these stones. People from Rinchengang village in Wangdue Phodrang Dzongkhag are well known for their great masonry skills. Most villages in the western part of Bhutan use mud, instead of stones for house construction as mud houses are believed to keep the interior warm in winter and cool in summer. It also depended on the type of construction materials available. Some of the outstanding stone works are; a. Dzongs: Bhutan is dotted with these majestically erected fortresses that sit high on top of the hills often overlooking the valleys. The dzongs are located at strategic places. It has massive stone walls with large courtyards and beautiful woodwork on windows and cornices which are the most striking among the diverse architectural expressions of the country. These structures had served the purpose of defending the country against foreign invasions in the past. These magnificent structures are the true representation of our architectural uniqueness and the living testimony of our artistic skills. Dzongs are mostly rectangular and square structures while ta-dzong (watch towers) and Chu-dzong are mostly round cylindrical structures. Today, these dzong are the seat of administration and monastic body. b. Stupas: Choeten or stupas are literally translated as a vessel of worship or offering the most common feature on the Bhutanese landscape. It is believed that after the cremation of the Lord Buddha, his relics were divided among eight groups of claimants and that each of the claimants later erected a reliquary in which they preserved the relics. Thus, there are eight different types of choeten today (Choeten Degye). At that time, these structures were erected only to preserve the relics of sublime beings and assumed greater meaning and significance much later. Building a stupa came to be considered an act of great piety, earning merit for the actual builders as well as for those who supported the act. It is also a beautiful illustration of our masonry skills. A choeten requires a great deal of stonework, as it is built out of stones. We can also see prayer mantras carved on the stones. c. Long Prayer Walls: Long mani walls locally known as mani dang rim are the monuments from medieval Bhutan found along the main mule tracks displaying the mantra of Avalokiteshvara carved on slabs of slates. These elegant monuments were testimony to the richness of spiritual devotions as well as significant landmarks for travelers. They have survived extreme climatic conditions for many years. It is said that construction of Mani walls in the country had begun around 15th century during the time of Tertoen Pema Lingpa. However, most of the Mani walls were said to be constructed during the reign of the 4th Druk Desi Tenzin Rabgye (1638-96). Mani walls were largely constructed with locally available materials such as stones, a small quantity of timber and mud used as the mortar. Side plinth is raised from the ground and a wall is constructed at the height of about 6 feet and generally carved Mani slabs are placed on it either in single or double line from end to end. A timber superstructure is raised on the top with a wall height of one foot and is often roofed with flat stone slabs or slate. The middle and two ends are raised higher than the other parts with a particular architectural design. The center portion has a pocket for enshrining three deities of Manjushri (left), Avalokiteshvara (centre) and Vajrapani (right). The special place in the centre is made of timber and the deities are placed on the wall with a space in front for making butter lamp offerings or other offerings. d. Farm Houses: Bhutanese farmhouses are typically built out of mud and stone. A standard practice was to erect two-storied house although an ideal house had three main floors and an attic. The materials for the houses vary across the country depending on the climatic conditions and the topography of the places. For instance, Bago and Dag jar Zhikom (farmhouses made out of stones and wood) which are lightly decorated in traditional style are found in the southern and eastern parts of Bhutan. In central and western Bhutan, double storey houses with main walls made of stones and rammed earth while the inner partitions are made of bamboo mats are found. Houses in the cold places like Lingzhi and Laya, Merak and Sakteng are mostly built out of stonewall. e. Grinding Stones: Rangtha is a pair of round grinding stones that is maneuvered by the hands. This is usually found in places where stream water is not available in the vicinity. Chura is a bigger version of the rangtha which is powered by water. While the stone pair works on the same principle, the watermills are much bigger in size and often turn faster depending on the pace of the water flow. It is still being used in some rural villages. For example, in Bumthang it is mostly used for grinding wheat and buckwheat. f. Bridges: Stonework also finds its use in the construction of the traditional bridges, which were built out of wood and stones. The stone is used as the foundation (jamdo) for constructing all sorts of bridges like chazam (iron bridges), bazam (cantilever bridges) and tshazam (cane bridges which are no longer used).
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Shingzo: Wood work
For centuries, many great master carpenters of Bhutan have displayed their skills to produce distinctive architectural designs that had come to be our heritage in wood work or shingzo. Woodwork continues to be a dominant part of most construction works. For structures that require wood, master carpenters are called upon to employ their knowledge and skills and to engineer the entire works without any blue print. The achievements of our master carpenters are evident in the dzongs, temples and monasteries, palaces, houses and bridges. The dzongs are widely appreciated by their architectural marvels. Trulpai Zowo Balep is respected and revered as a legendary artisan, for his contribution in the construction of Punakha Dzong in 1637. A long thread called thig containing dissolved red soil; a pendulum (chongdo) and a wooden lopon are essential possessions of a carpenter as are other tools. Bhutanese master carpenters rely on their knowledge and experience, and are expert in the joining wood without using metal nails. Each structural part like pillars, doors, beams, window frames, and roof girders are fitted separately on the ground. These elements are then joined together using thick wooden pegs. Logs with ledges serve as staircases. Roofs are also made of wooden shingles, weight down in their places by boulders. Items for daily use: Skills in wood work are also employed in making tools and essential items as listed below: • Wooden printing blocks, altars and plates for making offerings in the household, drums (nga) and masks of different types; • Cups, scabbards, handles for knives and swords and boxes of different types; • Musical instruments like guitar and drums, • Various decorative items likethe dragons, eight lucky signs and other decorative items. • Sports items lime darts (khuru) and targets (bha), • Wooden phalluses of different sizes.
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Thagzo: The Art of Weaving
Thagzo or the art of weaving is one of the oldest and widely used skills that have been practised for ages. The all-encompassing use of textiles represents prestige, artistic skills, discipline, determination, familial sentiments, tangible form of asset, and expressions of devotion towards the dharma. Bhutanese textiles are the product of knowledge and skills developed and nurtured over centuries of experiences and family traditions. Our textiles are valued and renowned for their richness of colour, sophistication and variation of patterns, including the intricate fibre preparation, dyeing, weaving, and embroidery techniques. This rich and complex art of weaving is an inseparable part of our culture and history. Today, the wide availability of imported fibres and dyes are transforming the palette, textures, and surface qualities of the clothes produced. There are more than eleven types of yarns and dyes including the five main colours (white, yellow, red, green and blue) and six subsidiary colours (orange, dark green, light yellowish green, pink, light white, blue and black). These different colours are woven in accordance with different designs and patterns. Women from central and eastern regions of Bhutan are famous for their weaving skills and each region produces their own specialty. a. Weaving with Designs and Patterns: Every textile product has a name that expresses its particular combination of colour, design, pattern and fibre. Weaving pattern is either stripes - vertical for men, and horizontal for women in cotton, silk or wool. Required extra designs are made by adding warp threads. Patterns like the vajra (thunderbolt), the swastika, the tree or the wheel, each has symbolic meanings. Although the symbols used in Bhutanese textiles are primarily of geometric nature, they also have deep religious meanings. Some common geometric symbols include the dorje (Vajra), the drame (nets), the phenphenma (butterflies), the phub (Kiliya), the yudrung (Swastika), and the shinglo (leaves). The drame or the eternal knot is a classic Buddhist symbol. The phenphenma is a symbol of butterfly and the eight-pointed star, while the dorje or the thunderbolt represents the indestructible powers of Buddhism. The phub or the rainbow is a triangle pattern in successive rainbow colours. When dorje symbol is incorporated within the phub symbol, the pattern becomes dorjephub. The shinglo symbol is used mostly on the royal and noble family dresses since this symbol is the most difficult to weave. The shinglo symbol represents the “tree of life”. The therpochay ( Jana chagri) or the China Wall pattern is usually seen next to the phub design on kiras. The therpochay symbol is believed to have been derived from the designs on Chinese brocade. The yudrung portrays the crossroads where the four directions meet. A yudrung represents the balancing forces of the universe, when rotating. The yudrung is an ancient pattern and its epicentre is considered a spiritual place. Yudrung is depicted on the royal thrikheb as the centre most design. Bhutanese weavers usually weave two types of textiles; the plain woven meaning kar chang, and the pattern woven textile called metochem. These are described below. a.1. Karchang: The plain woven textiles include pangtse, mathra, sethra, adang mathra, shardang thara, and pe sar. Plain woven clothes are worn at home or work since they are cheaper than the pattern-woven clothes. Mathra (red pattern) is a varicolored plaid woven on a maroon or red field, sometimes woven with stripes (khaja) at the edges. Sethra (gold pattern) is a plaid weave usually with yellow or orange field as the dominant colour. Sethra has two popular colour combinations; red with black or blue plaid on a white field; and yellow, white and black on an orange field. Sethra dokhana consists of black colour in it while buechapgi sethra does not contain black. Thara has horizontal stripes with white as a dominant field. Shardang thara has multicoloured stripes while Samkhongma have narrow red-and-blue stripes, and Mondre which has a similar pattern to Samkhongma is worn mainly by older people in rural areas. Kamtham Jadrima is a striped textile with colours of the rainbow. Kamtham thara consists of simple warp stripes or plaids, which are gifted to a religious person. Pesar (new design) is a modern innovation with small patterns in striped plain cloth. Yu tham or the country cloth which is made of wild silk or cotton is very popular in the rural areas. Kawley is a completely black fabric of wool, which is believed to have healing properties. a.2. Meto Chem: Aikapur and Ku shu thara are the two specific kinds of pattern-woven textiles. Pattern-woven clothes are considered special, and are valued and saved for special occasions like festivals, marriages and for New Year celebrations. Bhutanese weavers weave many different types of clothes with intricate designs such as leaves, birds, trees and other animal patterns. These are briefly explained below. Aikapur: Aikapur is a textile woven of cotton or silk, and appears to be embroidered. Aikapur has double faced pattern bands called hor which alternate with rows of plain weave; with always an odd number of legs ‘kangpa’ or cross hatches. A textile is referred to as a b-sampa (with three legs; b-napa (with five legs); b-zumpa (with seven legs); b-gupa (with nine legs); b-songhthurpa (with eleven legs); and b-songsampa (with thirteen legs). Aikapur is differentiated by the colour of the background thread, and the supplementary thread used. The common colours used in aikapur are: dromchu chema, literally meaning ‘little boxes’, with red, green, yellow, and white pattern bands. Mentse mathra is a material with a yellow base, and with red and green stripes. Montha has a blue or black background with red pattern bands between colourful stripes. Lungserma has green and red pattern bands on a yellow background. Shinglo or ‘tree of life’ patterns made on the fabric are used to assess the quality of an aikapur. The delicate branches and leaves of these trees are inspected when judging the quality of a textile. Kushu Thara: Kushu thara used to be considered aristocratic and the most prestigious dress for women. Ku shu thara is woven from vegetable dyed cotton and raw silk (bura) or entirely from silk. Ku shu thara has spectacular brocade design which take up to a year to weave. Ku shu thara is always embellished on a white base, and a similar kira with a blue or black background is called ngosham .Sapma, the continuous weft patterns, and tingma, the alternative weft patterns are used as base pattern for kushuthara, ngosham or shinglochem. Shinglochem can be either a gho or a kira, woven with alternate rows of warp pattern bands. b. Weaving Materials: Bhutanese produce fibres such as raw cotton, wool, nettle fibre, yak hair and bura (raw silk). The most expensive and the most valued fibre in Bhutan is raw silk. The Bhutanese do not kill the silk worms that remain inside after spinning its cocoon, but are left until they escape, which breaks the thread before it is unrolled. That is why, Bhutanese raw silk feels and looks relatively coarse compared to Indian and Chinese silk. Several types of yarn like seshu (cultivated from mulberry silk moth Bombayx mori), bura (produced by wild non-mulberry silk moth), namdru kuep (parachute silk), and varieties of silk imported from India are notable. b.1. Nettle: Nettle or stinging nettle, though now rarely used, is said to have been the original and chief fibre used by weavers in ancient Bhutan. Nettle fibre is coarse but strong and durable. That is why people in villages used it to weave sacks, bags, kurel, pagi, pakhi, bundi and tabden. Owing to its strength it is also used as bow string. Nettle is herbaceous flowering plant that grows in temperate and sub-tropical zone. The plant grows up to 2 meters in height with spiny stems and leaves and bears white to yellowish flowers. Nettle bark contains baste fibre which is strong, smooth and light. In Bhutan, nettle fibres are harvested in the months of October and November. After peeling the stems, the fibres are dried, and then cooked with ash for about 6 hours. The fibres are then washed with cold water, and beaten in order to remove the outer cover. After removing the outer cover, the fibres are dried and dyed with natural dyes. The nettle plants are shredded, and twisted into thin fibres using a drop spindle. Nettle fibres are used to weave bundi or carry bag. Bundi is usually woven with brocaded yudrung motif at the centre of the middle panel, on a white colour base. The bundi or carry bag consists of three lengths of cloth sewn together to form a square panel. Ropes on the diagonal sides of this piece are tied together to carry possessions and bedding. b.2. Wool: Yarns from yak, sheep and goat wool are spun using phang (drop spindle) and moved to a chaphang (spinning wheel). The herders of the high valleys of Merak and Sakteng weave shingka (tunic-style dresses), women’s jackets and belts. They also make hats, ropes, tents, and bags out of yak hair, and floor mats and blankets from sheep wool. The Layap women’s dress includes a black woollen jacket, a long woollen skirt, adorned with lot of jewels, which often include teaspoons. Women also wear conical bamboo hats with a bamboo spike at the top, held by beaded bands. Shingka, an ancient tunic-style textile that was woven with either a ngoshingkha (blue) or a laushingkha (red) wool base, was worn by a high lama during religious ceremonies. Char khab, woven from wool (of yak or sheep) either on a pedal loom or back strap loom is used for protection from snow, cold, and rain. It is water-resistant and an essential item for the herders in cold the region. Sephu charkhab (rain cloaks from Sephu) is a colourful textile with bands of green, blue, white and orange. Bumthang and Trongsa were known for a woollen fabric called yathra, which was used as a cover from rain and cold. In the late 1990s, farmers in Trongsa had stopped raising sheep which inevitably put an end to the practise of weaving yathra. Yathra is used as bed covers, blankets, rain cloaks, cushion covers, sofa set covers, and as jackets for both men and women. b.3. Cotton: Kershing (cotton) is used to separate the cotton seeds, and then fluff out to make it ready for spinning into yarn with the help of a wooden spindle or spinning wheel. Usually cotton woven with traditional designs on white background, chagsi pangkheb was put on laps to wipe hands before and after meals by persons of higher positions. In the early days, Bhutanese women used to put on an apron-like wear called dongkheb as a sign of respect while approaching the king or a high official. Phechung is a cotton woven carry bag woven but its usage is now limited to ceremonial receptions along with chagsi pangkheb. Thrikheb (throne cover) is a rare textile used as the King’s throne cover. It is also used for the lamas during religious ceremonies. Chephur gyaltshen (banner with frills), gyaltshen (pair of cylindrical hangings with valance), bumgho (bumpa covers), kheb and tenkheb (altar covers),phen (pair of triangular topped hangings) and chephur (a pair of cylindrical hangings) are some of the other cloth products that are used in altars and monasteries. Hingthub is a time-consuming but highly cherished textile woven for loved ones or for use by the weaver or their ‘lord’. The finer product demonstrates the dedication of the weaver. It is also used by the weaver’s family or to stitch outer attire for statues or as wall hangings. Today most of the yarns for weaving like raw silk, cotton and acrylic are imported while some of the yarn is spun and processed locally. The availability of cheap machine spun yarns from India has overtaken the local cotton cultivation. b.4. Types of Loom: There are three types of looms used by weavers in Bhutan. Traditionally pangthag was the most commonly used loom for weaving larger size garments. The smaller version of this loom called kethag is used for weaving narrow items like belts. In the 1970s, another type of loom called thri-thag (khri-thags) was adopted from India. This loom gained popularity in the growing urban centres. This later type is a horizontal loom with pedals. Each region has a speciality in terms of designs and types. Kurtoe is known for Ku shu thara, while marthra and serthra are mostly produced in Bumthang. Trashigang district is well known for weaving aikapur, while pangkheb and montha come from Kheng. b.5. Dyes: Bhutanese weavers consider the coordination of pleasing colours more important than the designs, patterns and techniques. Strong taboos are associated with the dyeing process and the weavers are very particular about colour shades. They believe that malevolent spirits, certain weather conditions, strangers or pregnant women can ruin the dye. Like the weaving techniques, the recipes for dyeing are closely guarded family secrets and the formula is usually passed down from mother to daughter. There are a number of dye-yielding plants. Weavers obtain dyes using simple methods from barks, flowers, fruits, leaves, and roots of plants, and minerals. Today, chemical or synthetic dyes called tsho-sar are easily available while the natural dye is called tsho nying. They are easily recognisable by their hue. Some of the natural dyes obtained from plants are described below. - Indigo: Shades of green, purple, blue and black are obtained from leaves of trees locally called yangshaba (Strobilanthus flaccidifolius) in Tshangla dialect. Indigo (lndigofera spp.) plants are cultivated in household gardens as a source of blue dye. Alum earths, sour fruits, and dug shing (Symplocos) leaves are used as a mordant in dyeing to fix the colouring matter. Indigo plant leaves are fermented for two weeks, and then passed through acidic ash water. - Lac: Jatsho (Lacifer lacca) is an organic dye that produces colours ranging from pink to deep red. Lac is boiled in water until it becomes sticky dough. The pulp is mixed with roasted wheat and allowed to ferment for 10 days. The selected yarn is then put into the boiling mixture until the colour gets absorbed. Churoo (Phyllanthusemblica) is used as a fixating element in dye. - Madder: Dried stems and leaves of madder called tsoe (Rubia cordifolia) are chopped into small pieces. This material is boiled together with the yarn to produce several colours ranging from pink to deep red. It is good for dyeing raw silk, cotton and wool. Madder can be preserved in dry place for years. The ripe berries of berberis, locally called kepatsang (Berberis aristata) are used as a source of red colour, while the barks of nut of the walnut tree can be used to obtain orange colour in woollen yarns. - Pangtse: Leaves from pangtse shing (Symplocos paniculata) are gathered from the forest, which can be used fresh or dried, to make yellow colour .Pangtse leaves are boiled in water along with woollen yarns. The yarn is then allowed to drip. Sometimes, yung ga (Curcuma longa) or turmeric is also used to obtain a bright yellow colour. Lemon, also called churoo (Emblica officinalis), variety of other berries, herbs, plants, and roots are used along with alum mordant to boost colours in the yarn. However, since dyed yarns from India are available at cheaper price, only a few Bhutanese weavers practise the tradition of natural dyeing processes these days.
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Tshemzo: The art of Tailoring, Embroidery and Appliqué
Tshemzo includes three forms of art - tailoring, embroidery and appliqué under one name. Tailoring involves stitching all kinds of garments while embroidery, which is called tshemdrub, and appliqué or lhemdrub are done for making thangka and thongdroel. According to Lam Nado (Druk Karpo, 1986), the art Embroidery called tshemdrub and appliqué was introduced in Bhutan by Drung Damcho Gyaltshen, secretary of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal. He was not only a scholar but was also highly skilled in the art of Tshemzo. Later the art was widely spread by Penlop (Chieftain) Drakpa Jamtsho and Choeje (Nobility) Jamgon Ngawang Gyaltshen subsequently. Tshemdrub involves working with thread and needle to produce designs while lhemdrub involves fixing the cut patches of either silk or brocade to produce bigger images. Monks normally practice the art of embroidery and appliqué.Monks produce large religious scrolls known as Thangkas that portray Buddhist deities and saints. Seven different kinds of embroidery are practiced: • Lhugtshem-light coloured embroidery • Sitshem- the bold coloured embroidery • Nyitshem- double-embroidery • Chagthagtshem- Iron-chain embroidery • Zurtshem- lining embroidery • Dongtshem- front embroidery • Chedtshem- outline embroidery a. Sewing Traditional Garments: Common practice among the people is lagtshem (hand sweing) or thrultshem (sewing by using a tailoring machine). These tailors are skilled at sewing the traditional Bhutanese garments. They stitch gho and kira, the national attires for men and women respectively. They also design and stitch tego and wonju (blouse) worn by Bhutanese women. Traditionally, lagtshem- to stitch costumes with bare hands using the thread and needles were practiced and were done mostly at home. Today, however, with the advancement in technologies, tailors use modern sewing machines, which are more effective and carried out with much ease.
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Parzo: The Art of Carving
Parzo is the art of carving on wood, stone and slate. This art is evident throughout the country displayed magnificently on wooden structures of fortresses, palaces, stupas, temples, traditional houses and even on furniture. The following section describes some forms of carving. a. Woodcarving: Wood has been one of the most widely used resources in the country. Some of the masks worn by dancers during the festivals, the altars in the shrine room of any house, containers like bowls and cups, sheaths and handles of knives and swords, xylographic blocks are all carved out of wood. b. Choesham, Decorative Items and Furniture: Every house has a choesham (altar) entirely made of wood. Generally the altars will have carvings like choetsi and other designs such as dragons, flowers, eight lucky signs and mythological animals, on the main structure in accordance with the desires of the owner. On the upper part of the structure called gu-chag the altar will have the designs called pema, norbu, bagam, boh and ngangpa. Cabinets, chogdroms, divans, decorative floral items, religious motifs like dragons, tashi tagye and various legendary animals are carved out of wood. The three sides of chogdrom (traditional portable table) are carved with dragons, flowers or other legendary animals. Dramnyen, the traditional Bhutanese guitar is carved from wood in an intricate dragon design. The fingerboard is usually decorated with colourful traditional symbols. The hollowed sound box is covered with goatskin, and attached with either silk or nylon strings. c. Masks: The Bhutanese make various shapes and sizes of masks from semi-hardwood, usually blue pine to depict the face of gods, animals and mythological figures. These carved wooden masks are used in the sacred and religious dances. Carved wooden masks are also popular as decorations in houses, dzongs, temples and monasteries. d. Xylography: Before the invention of wood carving tradition in Bhutan, all religious texts and official documents were primarily written by hand. With the introduction of woodblock carving and printing technique by Terton Pema Lingpa (1450-1521), religious texts and images have been carved on woodblocks, thereby reproducing numerous copies, by printing on paper and textiles. Each and every temple and monastery in Bhutan hold a copy of the Buddhist cannons (the teachings) and commentaries on the teachings. Many of the texts from the cannon have been carved on wood, and reproduced by printing on paper. Woodblock carving is usually carried out on dried birch wood. To make a wooden block for carving, the woodblock is adequately oiled to make it soft and smooth for carving. The wooden block surface is then planed smooth on which the written text is glued. Once the paper has dried, it is removed from the block leaving the image of the scripts on the woodblock. The mirror image of the texts that need to be printed is left on the surface while those parts not required are removed with gouges or chisels. The texts are then carved with the help of chisels. Images and other patras (intricate designs) are carved only on to one side of the wooden block, whereas religious texts are carved on both sides of the woodblock. The carved woodblock is then coated with ink, and a sheet of paper is placed over the inked blocks. The paper is then rubbed and pressed with a roller to get the text printed. It is then left to dry either in shed or sun. Four different kinds of tools are used for xylography such as zhogthig, yatag, segchung. Round letters are carved using the tip of the mindrug with its sharp crescent shape tip. The tip of the yatag with its more relaxed crescent shape is used to carve the sub-bending yatag script. Similar to the typical Bhutanese knife; the tip of segchung is slightly slanted and carves the rest of the letters of the scripts. Zhogthig, with its wider and large tip is used to carve the lines in the space on the edge of the text that maintain the outer margin. e. Stone Carving: In Bhutan, carving on stones is not as diverse or common as wood carving but it existed in Bhutan. One comes across huge water driven grinding stone mills, hollowed-out stones used for pounding and husking grains, troughs for feeding animals, images of deities, gods and religious figures carved onto large rocks. In Bhutan, stones were also carved to make stone pots and utensils, but today these have become rare because of modern alternatives. f. Slate Carving: Slate carving is another form of art that is being practiced in Bhutan. Slate, called as do nag, is found in abundance in Bhutan, and the artisan is known as donag lopen. Portraits depicting deities and religious figures, inscriptions of mantras and religious scripts are carved onto slates, and adorned onto the exterior walls of temples, monasteries, dzongs and choetens. Apart from carving on wood, stone and slate, the Bhutanese people also carve images of gods and deities on rhino horns and ivory.
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EE00002589
Lhazo: Painting
Bhutanese paintings are quintessential of the arts and crafts tradition known as Lhazo. Bhutanese paintings are religious in their orientation and are not created in isolation. The traditional painters are called Lhadrips (one who makes drawings of lha - higher beings). A lhadrip paints and decorates a new house with traditional symbols, paint a chosham (an altar) or a Thangka or Thongdroel with the images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and deities with strict adherence to the already accepted norms. Another striking feature of Bhutanese paintings is anonymity. Bhutanese lhadrips would never sign on their works. It is, however, the names of the patrons who are mentioned on the paintings, if mentioned at all. By the same token, it is believed that the traditional painters gain lots of merits by the act of painting these religious arts. These paintings are aimed at providing spiritual lessons to the viewers and therefore assume meditative functions. The painters use naturally pigmented soils that are obtained from different parts of the country. The yellow colours are found in the districts of Gasa and Bumthang while the red colour is found in Wamrong under Trashigang District, black soil comes from Phuentsholing and Trashigang and white soil from Paro. Lhadrip apprentices learn to paint a wide range of images including simple motifs like the eight lucky signs and gradually move on to more complex subjects such as thangkas – large painting scrolls. Thangkas are complex because they depict various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and the deities and saints with their follower and appropriate backgrounds. They are often painted on canvas and then stitched in silk frames. Traditional paintings are classified into four categories: a. Mural Painting: The mural painting is called debri.The inside walls of the temples are usually filled with mural paintings of different kinds. The surfaces of the inside walls are first smoothened and plastered with fine clay and then left to dry. Sometimes they use another technique by carefully laying a fine sheet of cotton cloth over the plastered walls which is not easily visible. The mural paintings vary from the images of Lord Buddha and Guru Rinpoche and their activities, bhavacakra (sidpa khorlo) or wheel of existence, varied icons of deities (lhatshog), adepts and saints. We also find the paintings of Mandala. These frescos are, therefore, strictly religious and strikingly beautiful. b. Statue Painting: Statues are either moulded from clay or cast out of bronze and metal. Once they are completed, then the lhadrips paint them using appropriate colour. The clay statues are painted all over while the metal statues are painted only on the face, often with gold. c. Scroll Painting: Scroll (thangka) paintings are different from mural paintings as they are painted on canvas for hanging on the walls. Scroll paintings can be kept folded in a safe place and unfolded and displayed on auspicious occasions. In order to make a thangka, the painter fixes a damp piece of canvas onto a wooden frame. Then a mixture of lime and gum is scrubbed on the surface. The surface is then polished and smoothed. The artist then draws a grid to guide him. When the colour is applied these lines disappear. A thangka is stitched with silk and brocade border of appropriate colours and has two frames fixed to the upper and lower borders to suspend and stretch. Thongdroel is a much larger version of a thangka. It is believed that merely seeing the painting can liberate sentient beings from samsara. Thus, it brings merit not only to the believers but for the painters as well. d. Wood Painting: Shing tshon (Shing means wood and tshon means colour painting) is done on the wooden structure. The outside walls of the temples, monasteries and farm houses are normally whitewashed while the wooden structures are painted with varied patterns and symbols often in accordance with different names accorded to different parts. These are bow, phana, pem, choetsi, norbu and bagam. Although the choice of colours may vary from one painter to another, often depending on the choice of the owner or main architect, the style of paintings are generally uniform. Paintings on the walls depict the traditional patterns like flowers, traditional symbols, eight lucky signs or Tashi Tagye (eight lucky signs), and the four lungta signs of Tag Seng Chung Druk (Tiger, Snow Lion, Garuda and Dragon). The painting of the Four Friends is popular on the walls. Some walls are also painted with phalluses. In order to paint on the wooden walls, the method called ‘pounce and spray’ is used. A painter uses an outline of a pattern or the design on a piece of paper to be painted on the walls. The outlines have pricked holes through which a powdered colour contained in a cloth is pressed to produce dotted pattern of the original patterns on the paper. The painter then traces these outlines to paint.
Bhutan -
EE00002512
Yaldā/Chella
“Yaldā/Chella” is an ancient celebration whereby the brilliance of the sun along with the warmth of life are cherished. This event coincides with an increase in day-length in the region The winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere corresponds to Dey 1st (December 22nd) in the Iranian calendar and Ghovs 30th (December 21st) in the Afghans calender . On the occasion of the last night of autumn, families get together. This family reunion often takes place at the houses of elders where people meet around a table called “Yaldā/Chella Night Sofrah”. “Yaldā/Chella Night Sofrah” consists of a lamp that symbolizes light, water that represents cleanliness, red fruits such as pomegranates, watermelons, beetroots, jujube and red and green grapes that demonstrate warmth along with serving broth (Ash), sweets, dried fruits and nuts special to this occasion, all set on “Yaldā/Chella Night Sofrah” and consumed during the nightly gathering. The Sofrah usually comes in red and is traditionally spread on the floor or on Korsi/chairs. The red color used in various components of the Sofrah refer to the reddish sky after the dusk and before the dawn. This feature showcases the relationship between this celebration with the ancient rituals of a Mithraism, i.e. worshiping the goddess of the sun. In Afghanistan, people believe that the devil invades houses at this night and they set fire at their houses to prevent entrance of evil and ugliness (embodied as the devil) to their houses. The type of activities in this celebration ranges from reciting poems, storytelling, reciting Hafiz's poems or referring to them for pleasane omens, reciting verses from the epic poetic masterpiece of Shahnameh, listening to or playing music, singing and giving gifts to new in-laws/brides and children, indoor games and enjoying “Yaldā/Chella Night Sofrah” goodies and items. Women play a key role in this ceremony. Children are also considered as the future bearers/practitioners of the element. The elders are valued as its bearers. While observing “Yaldā/Chella” items such as cultural identity, attention to nature, and respect for women, friendship, hospitality, cultural diversity and peaceful coexistence are manifested and respected.
Iran,Afghanistan 2022 -
EE00002511
Turkmen-style needlework art
In both Submitting States Turkmen-style needlework is an object of decorative applied art, combining the skills of a certain creative work on different types of fabric. In Turkmenistan, it is the national costumes of women, men, young people, boys, girls, elderly women and men. In Iran, it is mostly the costumes of the Iranian Turkmen enthic group living in the northen parts of Iran but nowadays, it is widely welcomed and used by all Iranians. In both Submitting States, Turkmen-Style needlework begins with the preparation of natural thin silk threads which intertwined together in three (3) layers and twisted into one thread, then straightened with a large needle and the excess is removed. After twisting the three layers separately, the thread itself acquires a kind of shine. The left and right sides are used to create the loops, the dimensions can vary as desired. Piercing the fabric with a thin needle with the right hand, a loop is created, which must be preserved until the next loop is created, held by the thumb of the left hand. Depending on the dominant hand of the Needlewomen, the looping process will happen in the reverse direction. This is the most common needlework style. There are also other Needlework styles that vary depending on the local creativity. Totally, there are seven skills called “Ilme”, “Basma”, “Pugtama”, “Jakhek”, “chekmek”, “El gayma”, “Chigme”. The patterns used, also reveal the territorial identity of the Needlewomen mostly in rural areas. The patterns also symbolise love, freindship, nature, strengnth, etc. Almost all of the needleworkers in both countries are women but in the related jobs such as making the needlework tools, men are also involved. There is no age limits for practicing the element. Traditionally, young girls do it when they are small children learning from their mothers and grandmothers through informal method as a necessary life skill. Its social functions and cultural meaning are wedding dress for bride and groom, used in funerals, cultural events e.g. Nowrouz/Nowruz Celebration, decorative parts of ordinary costumes including: scarfs, manteau, pants, shawls; accessories like headbands, wristbands, necklace, cosmetics bags, women’s wallets/bags/backpacks. Nowadays, this Human-Rights-friendly element is also utilised for contemporary home decorations e.g. table cloth, cushion/pillow sheets, bed covers, wall hangings, & etc.
Iran,Turkmenistan 2022 -
EE00002510
Traditional tea processing techniques and associated social practices in China
The element consists of knowledge, skills, and practices concerning management of tea plantations, picking of tea leaves, manual processing, drinking and sharing of tea. Based on natural conditions and local customs, tea producers have developed six categories of green, yellow, dark, white, oolong and black teas, as well as reprocessed teas like flower-scented teas, which results in over 2,000 tea products. Processing tools are woks, bamboo trays and drying frames, etc. Core skills employed include shaqing (enzyme inactivation), menhuang (yellowing), wodui (piling), weidiao (withering), zuoqing (leaves shaking and cooling), fajiao (oxidation or fermentation) and yinzhi (scenting). All these teas, with their diverse colors, aromas, flavors and shapes, meet different needs of people. Tea is ubiquitous in Chinese people’s daily life. Steeped or boiled tea is served in families, workplaces, tea houses, restaurants, temples, etc. and applied as an important media for communication in socializing and ceremonies such as wedding, apprentice-taking and sacrificing. Practices of greeting guests with tea and building good relationships within family and among neighborhood through tea-related activities are shared among multiple ethnic groups, and provide a sense of identity and continuity for communities, groups and individuals concerned. During the transmission, the element has nurtured systematic knowledge, extensive social practices, proven traditional skills and abundant handiwork. It reflects Chinese people’s values of modesty, harmony, comity and respect, and has profound influence on moral cultivation and personality shaping. It also facilitates exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations through the Silk Roads, hence playing a significant role in sustainable social development.
China 2022 -
EE00002508
Talchum, mask dance drama in the Republic of Korea
Talchum is a performing art that encompasses dance, music, and theatre. An ensemble of six to ten musicians accompanies masked performers who sing and dance and exchange verbal interactions through theatrical movements. The primary themes satirized by traditional mask dance dramas include the hypocrisy of Buddhist monks, the arrogance of the yangban nobility, and people's suffering under the male-dominated patriarchal system. Diverse social issues are humorously explored through dramatic combinations of songs, dances, movements, and words. Masks with exaggerated archetypical representations of everyday personages are an indispensable element in the presentation of talchum. A Korean mask dance drama does not require a formal stage: Any empty space can become a venue for talchum. The audience for a masked-dance drama are not passive spectators, but important participants. They complete the production with their cheers and jeers as the drama unfolds. Talchum is a dynamic theatrical flow of action and sound created through the combined efforts of both the players and spectators. This flexibility provided to talchum by the audience's active participation and its thematic orientation toward social criticism gave birth to the unique phenomenon of large-scale transmission of talchum among young people, particularly university students, during the 1970-80s. This generation continues to play a critical role in the transmission of talchum. In talchum, physical and emotional conflict among the characters always ends in a dance of reconciliation. While criticizing that which needs to be criticized, talchum always aims toward a greater unity.
Republic of Korea 2022 -
EE00002507
Sericulture and traditional production of silk for weaving
In all submitting states, sericulture and traditional production of silk for weaving includes series of practices traditional knowledge, skills and crafts of the communities concerned related to growing mulberry trees, breeding silkworms, producing silk threads, for weaving and other purposes. Farmers grow mulberry trees that provide leaves upon which the worms feed, then produce silkworm eggs and ensure care of the silkworm (feeding with mulberry leaves) from the egg stage until the completion of the cocoon (turning matured silkworms to cocoons). Communities then produce silk by reeling from the silk threads, weave silk fabrics and use the fabrics in crafts. Craftspeople of both genders produce raw silk by means of raising larvae, particularly those of the domesticated silkworm to form the cocoon within which the larvae develop. The silkworm builds its cocoon by surrounding itself with a long fibre or filament. Fed by fresh mulberry leaves, silkworms start to spin their silken cocoons after 26-28 days. The whole process begins in March to September depending on the climate. The cocoons are collected before pupa pierces its cocoon and then those collected cocoons are dried. Silk containing sericin is called “raw silk”. The gummy substance is usually retained until the yarn or fabric stage and is removed by boiling the silk in soap and water. Communities then bathe cocoons which then soften and allow for the peak of the thread to be obtained. In order to obtain raw silk, several cocoons that gave the threads are put on reeling process at the same time. In order to clean up and to dry, obtained raw silk is taken from reel and hanged on the reed. In the preparation for the weaving process, people twist threads and unwind warps. After drawing-in and wimple is made ready, the weaving process begins. In order to remove cerasine fabrics, woven with raw silk yarn, people boil the fabrics in water containing soap. After boiling process, communities color and trace the fabrics by using various traditional methods. Craftspeople use the silk threads to create various types of craft products, such as fabrics, carpets. The products of silk are very much appreciated within the communities, who use them at various social and cultural occasions, including weddings, funerals and family gatherings. Deeply rooted in the traditions of the Great Silk Road, sericulture and traditional production of silk for weaving are an expression of cultural identity, centuries-old traditions and a symbol of social cohesion. While the silk trade has been carried out throughout the centuries, it has allowed spreading the silk culture, health and science among communities of the submitting states. In all submitting states silk functions as the symbol of splendor, elegance and spring. In all submitting states, silk producers are mostly villagers and they work cooperatively and they have special ceremonies for silk when it is produced.
Iran,Turkey,Afghanistan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Azerbaijan 2022 -
EE00002505
Pehlevanliq culture: traditional zorkhana games, sports and wrestling
The culture of pehlevans (pehlevanliq) refers to variety of traditional physical performances, training and competitions practiced and transmitted from generation to generation by ‘pehlevans’ (traditional athletes/wrestlers). It includes zorkhana games and sports, pehlevan wrestling (‘gulesh’), and individual pehlevan performances at outdoor celebrations and various popular events. While zorkhana games and sports used to be performed in special buildings bearing the same name (‘houses of strength’, with arenas (“sufra”), surrounded by spectators), they were destroyed in early 20th century during the Soviet period. Despite the destruction of zorkhanas, pehlevans’ performances continued to be transmitted and became popular in early 1990s, when Azerbaijan regained its independence. Communities continue to use the term ‘zorkhana’ to refer mainly to their performances. Originally framed as training activities of athletes for military purposes (State of Safavids, 16th century), zorkhanas, with time, completely lost their original function, while remaining a part of culture. Today, dozens of pehlevans perform in Azerbaijan. In zorkhanas, pehlevans use specific tools (‘mil’,‘yekba’,‘kebbade’), which imitate Middle Age weapons (sword, shield, bow), but are made heavier (originally, to allow pehlevans handle real weapons easily). The gulesh wrestling is a type of zorkhana performances, requiring specific skills and regulated by set of rules. The competitions are regulated by referees and accompanied by “Jangi” music or naghara drums fast beating. Pehlevans also perform outside zorkhana sports, through weightlifting, pulling heavy objects and other displays of bodily strength. The pehlevanliq culture represents integral part of popular culture and gives strong sense of identity to communities in Azerbaijan.
Azerbaijan 2022