National Intangible Cultural Heritage, Republic of Korea With no salt mines available in the country, seawater has long been the only source of salt in Korea. There were two principle traditional methods of salt production. Jayeom, or "boiled salt," was obtained by securing brine with a high concentration of salt from mudflats and boiling it down to salt crystals. The jayeom method, the oldest surviving records of which date back to the Goryeo Dynasty, was applied throughout the Joseon era. Cheonilyeon, or "solar salt," was introduced to Korea in 1907 and has been practiced until today. It refers to salt produced by simply evaporating seawater in the sun and wind. These two traditional Korean methods of salt manufacturing are distinct for their production in mudflats. Korean sea salt produced from mudflats, or cheonilyeom, accounts for a whopping 86 percent of the global production of mudflat sea salt. Salt in Korea has developed distinctive associations with traditional beliefs due to its use as protection against fire or evil spirits. Further studies of the labor structure and manufacturing methods of traditional salt are expected to boost our understanding of the culture of Korean fishing villages and the ecology of Korean mudflats. The salt-producing mudflats along the western coast of the Korean Peninsula are also renowned for their views at sunset. * As traditional salt making is not confined to any particular region or individual, no holders or holder groups have been recognized for this element.

National Intangible Cultural Heritage, Republic of Korea Tidal flats, nicknamed "sea fields" in Korea, have long provided an important source of livelihoods for local people. The traditional practice of maintaining tidal flats as communal property has been transmitted to the present in the form of village cooperatives. Korean tidal flats are a treasure trove of diverse ocean resources and have held a disproportionate influence over the formation and development of the nation’s diet. \t The practice of harvesting shellfish and other invertebrate animals in coastal wetlands enjoys a long and steady history on the Korean Peninsula. The western and southern coastal areas have produced many large shell middens dating to the New Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages all the way to the Goryeo Dynasty. Written records on tidal flat harvesting can be found in a book on seafood from the Joseon period—Jasan eobo by the Practical Learning scholar Jeong Yak-jeon (1758–1816). Tidal flat harvesting involves a number of performative rites, enriching Korean culture and traditions. The most well-known community tradition associated with it is the gaet je, a seasonal festival praying for a good harvest. In addition, there are separate community rituals for predicting the quantity of the catch or to celebrate a good harvest. Tidal flat harvesting has been designated as National Intangible Cultural Heritage for the following reasons: It possesses a time-honored history with many active transmission communities over an extensive area; This history is supported by written records from at least the Joseon period; The diverse skills and techniques manifested in tidal flat harvesting hold great potential for academic research; There are many unique rites and festivals associated with tidal flat harvesting; The practice shows great local diversity through, for example, the different tools applied; and It continues to serve as an important source of livelihoods in Korean communities. As tidal flat harvesting is being transmitted across the western and southern coastal areas in many villages, no particular individuals or organizations have been recognized as official holders of this element.

In Bhutan, there are several funeral practices as mentioned below: 1. Cremation of dead body at cremation ground or near one’s own house or on a river bank; 2. Sky burial, where the body is placed on a mountaintop for vultures to consume; 3. Water burial, where the body is immersed in the river and weighed down with heavy stones, or else cut into small pieces which are then scattered in the river; 4. Ground burial, where the body is buried underground; 5. Cave burial, where the body is deposited or hidden in caves on cliff faces; and 6. Surface burial, where the body is buried above the ground but covered with a structure made of stones and plaster. Cremation is the most common practice throughout the country. People prefer to cremate the body of a family member at a charnel ground, which has been prepared in accordance with the mandala of Buddha Akshobhya, and consecrated and blessed by highly attained lamas. The Hindus in the southern foothills cremate their dead on riverbanks so that the ashes and remaining debris are easily disposed of in the river. People in Merak and Sakteng communities (eastern Bhutan) dispose of dead bodies in the river or else bury them underground, while in places like Lingzhi (Western north) the dead bodies are left on a flat stone at a higher elevation for the vultures. In the Lhop community (Southern ethnic) , the dead body is buried above the surface of the ground within a stone mound which is plastered to make it air proof. Where cremation is practised, dead children below the age of eight are not allowed to be cremated. In olden days, they were either taken for sky burial on high mountaintops where vultures could feed on them, or they were buried in the river, weighed down with heavy stones to prevent them from being carried downstream. Sky burial is discouraged these days, however. In the event of a death, it is of utmost importance to seek divination from an astrologer before disposing of the body. Based on his ruling, various religious and charitable activities are organised in the name of the deceased. The main purpose of such activity is to accumulate enough merit to speed up his or her next rebirth as a human. Failing to accumulate enough merit will lead the deceased to be reborn into one of the four unhappy states of existence below the human plane. The virtuous person will either take rebirth as a human being, or be reborn in the pure realm of a Buddha field, from which they may travel the path towards enlightenment without falling back into the lower realms. The Buddhist tradition of funeral rite continues for 49 days after death. Aspiration prayers for the deceased are recited and rituals performed almost daily by those who can afford it, depending on the availability of monks or gomchens (lay-monks) and nuns. Those who cannot afford daily rituals, must at the very least initiate the droda zhi on the 4th day since the death, duen tshig on the 7th day, chuzhi on the 14th day and nyishu tsachi or gewa on the 21st day and finally zhipchu zhegu on the 49th day for performance of kangsha (prayer rituals) to the various forms of Compassionate Buddhas (mithrugpa and chenrezig), without fail. The family also conducts a ritual at the first anniversary after the passing away of the person, but for those who can afford it, the anniversary ritual can go on up to any number of years from the third year onwards. Relatives and intimate friends will try to attend all the rites including the annual rites, but people from the community will prefer to come mostly during the last two days (i.e. 21st and 49th days since the death). Following the funeral rite, a drigo (meaning, an effigy or a photograph of the deceased) is kept in the corner of the shrine room and offered meals, butter lamps, tshog (other forms of food), fruits and drinks every day, starting with the first day of passing away, until the 21st day rite, after which the drigo is removed. This is because the soul of the deceased is thought to hover around the body instead of leaving to seek the path of liberation. After cremation, any remaining fragments of bone are collected from the cremation site, then ground into powder, mixed with clean mud and made into tshatsha (mini stupas). These are laid in caves, on ledges of cliffs and at other sacred sites before the 49th day. One hundred and eight prayer flags printed with the Chenrezig mantra (om mani padme hum) are hoisted for the deceased, in order to benefit all sentient beings. Customarily, the six-syllable mani mantra would be sung melodiously with heartfelt devotion by those present at such rituals, but the practice is slowly diminishing, either because people nowadays do not know the tradition or because it is coming to be seen as obsolete. Even in remoter areas of the country, the tradition is no longer very strong.

Like in many other countries, dozo (masonry or stonework) is an old craft that is still in practice throughout the country. The skills of Bhutanese masonry can be seen in fortresses, temples, monasteries, stupas and farmhouses. It required special skills to cut and polish stones into right shapes and sizes and was carried out under the strict supervision of the head carpenter, who also had the role of an architect. Stone masons use an axe like tool called dota. Stones of crude shapes and sizes are chiselled into right shapes according to the style of the structure. There are mainly five different types of stone shapes that the masons prepare for construction. They are jamdo- used as the foundation stones, zurdo (corner stone) used as the corners walls, tshigdo (flat stones) that are used in the middle, dotru (pebbles) used in between the two chiseled stones and dochal (flat stones) layed in the courtyards of the dzong and temples. A skilled mason would first lay the zurdo (corner stone) and position other stones towards its right and left. The masons used a measuring thread called thig to correctly align these stones. People from Rinchengang village in Wangdue Phodrang Dzongkhag are well known for their great masonry skills. Most villages in the western part of Bhutan use mud, instead of stones for house construction as mud houses are believed to keep the interior warm in winter and cool in summer. It also depended on the type of construction materials available. Some of the outstanding stone works are; a. Dzongs: Bhutan is dotted with these majestically erected fortresses that sit high on top of the hills often overlooking the valleys. The dzongs are located at strategic places. It has massive stone walls with large courtyards and beautiful woodwork on windows and cornices which are the most striking among the diverse architectural expressions of the country. These structures had served the purpose of defending the country against foreign invasions in the past. These magnificent structures are the true representation of our architectural uniqueness and the living testimony of our artistic skills. Dzongs are mostly rectangular and square structures while ta-dzong (watch towers) and Chu-dzong are mostly round cylindrical structures. Today, these dzong are the seat of administration and monastic body. b. Stupas: Choeten or stupas are literally translated as a vessel of worship or offering the most common feature on the Bhutanese landscape. It is believed that after the cremation of the Lord Buddha, his relics were divided among eight groups of claimants and that each of the claimants later erected a reliquary in which they preserved the relics. Thus, there are eight different types of choeten today (Choeten Degye). At that time, these structures were erected only to preserve the relics of sublime beings and assumed greater meaning and significance much later. Building a stupa came to be considered an act of great piety, earning merit for the actual builders as well as for those who supported the act. It is also a beautiful illustration of our masonry skills. A choeten requires a great deal of stonework, as it is built out of stones. We can also see prayer mantras carved on the stones. c. Long Prayer Walls: Long mani walls locally known as mani dang rim are the monuments from medieval Bhutan found along the main mule tracks displaying the mantra of Avalokiteshvara carved on slabs of slates. These elegant monuments were testimony to the richness of spiritual devotions as well as significant landmarks for travelers. They have survived extreme climatic conditions for many years. It is said that construction of Mani walls in the country had begun around 15th century during the time of Tertoen Pema Lingpa. However, most of the Mani walls were said to be constructed during the reign of the 4th Druk Desi Tenzin Rabgye (1638-96). Mani walls were largely constructed with locally available materials such as stones, a small quantity of timber and mud used as the mortar. Side plinth is raised from the ground and a wall is constructed at the height of about 6 feet and generally carved Mani slabs are placed on it either in single or double line from end to end. A timber superstructure is raised on the top with a wall height of one foot and is often roofed with flat stone slabs or slate. The middle and two ends are raised higher than the other parts with a particular architectural design. The center portion has a pocket for enshrining three deities of Manjushri (left), Avalokiteshvara (centre) and Vajrapani (right). The special place in the centre is made of timber and the deities are placed on the wall with a space in front for making butter lamp offerings or other offerings. d. Farm Houses: Bhutanese farmhouses are typically built out of mud and stone. A standard practice was to erect two-storied house although an ideal house had three main floors and an attic. The materials for the houses vary across the country depending on the climatic conditions and the topography of the places. For instance, Bago and Dag jar Zhikom (farmhouses made out of stones and wood) which are lightly decorated in traditional style are found in the southern and eastern parts of Bhutan. In central and western Bhutan, double storey houses with main walls made of stones and rammed earth while the inner partitions are made of bamboo mats are found. Houses in the cold places like Lingzhi and Laya, Merak and Sakteng are mostly built out of stonewall. e. Grinding Stones: Rangtha is a pair of round grinding stones that is maneuvered by the hands. This is usually found in places where stream water is not available in the vicinity. Chura is a bigger version of the rangtha which is powered by water. While the stone pair works on the same principle, the watermills are much bigger in size and often turn faster depending on the pace of the water flow. It is still being used in some rural villages. For example, in Bumthang it is mostly used for grinding wheat and buckwheat. f. Bridges: Stonework also finds its use in the construction of the traditional bridges, which were built out of wood and stones. The stone is used as the foundation (jamdo) for constructing all sorts of bridges like chazam (iron bridges), bazam (cantilever bridges) and tshazam (cane bridges which are no longer used).